Urea Cycle, Properties and Applications of Urea
Keywords:
urea, metabolism, non-toxic, excretion, fertilizers, chemicals of life, organic, amino groups, vitalism
Abstract
Urea, also known as carbamide, is an organic compound with chemical formula CO(NH2)2. This amide has two amino groups (–NH2) joined by a carbonyl functional group (–C(=O)–). It is thus the simplest amide of carbamic acid.Urea serves an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds by animals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals. Urea is New Latin, from French urée, from Ancient Greek οὖρον (ouron, “urine”), itself from Proto-Indo-European *h₂worsom.It is a colorless, odorless solid, highly soluble in water, and practically non-toxic (LD50 is 15 g/kg for rats).[6] Dissolved in water, it is neither acidic nor alkaline. The body uses it in many processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. The liver forms it by combining two ammonia molecules (NH3) with a carbon dioxide (CO2) molecule in the urea cycle. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen (N) and is an important raw material for the chemical industry.In 1828 Friedrich Wöhler discovered that urea can be produced from inorganic starting materials, which was an important conceptual milestone in chemistry. This showed for the first time that a substance previously known only as a byproduct of life could be synthesized in the laboratory without biological starting materials, thereby contradicting the widely held doctrine of vitalism, which stated that only living organisms could produce the chemicals of life.37
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
1. Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 (Blue Book). Cambridge: The Royal Society of Chemistry. 2014. pp. 416, 860–861. doi:10.1039/9781849733069-FP001. ISBN 978-0-85404-182-4. The compound H2N-CO-NH2 has the retained named 'urea', which is the preferred IUPAC name, (…). The systematic name is 'carbonyl diamide'.
2. Yalkowsky, Samuel H.; He, Yan; Jain, Parijat (19 April 2016). Handbook of Aqueous Solubility Data. ISBN 9781439802465.
3. "Solubility of Various Compounds in Glycerine" (PDF). msdssearch.dow.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
4. Loeser E, DelaCruz M, Madappalli V (9 June 2011). "Solubility of Urea in Acetonitrile–Water Mixtures and Liquid–Liquid Phase Separation of Urea-Saturated Acetonitrile–Water Mixtures". Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 56 (6): 2909–2913. doi:10.1021/je200122b.
5. Calculated from 14−pKa. The value of pKa is given as 0.10 by the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 49th edition (1968–1969). A value of 0.18 is given by Williams, R. (24 October 2001). "pKa Data" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2003.
6. "Urea - Registration Dossier - ECHA". echa.europa.eu.
7. Worsch, Detlev; Vögtle, Fritz (2002). "Separation of enantiomers by clathrate formation". Topics in Current Chemistry. Springer-Verlag. pp. 21–41. doi:10.1007/bfb0003835. ISBN 3-540-17307-2.
8. Schaber, Peter M.; Colson, James; Higgins, Steven; Thielen, Daniel; Anspach, Bill; Brauer, Jonathan (2004). "Thermal decomposition (pyrolysis) of urea in an open reaction vessel". Thermochimica Acta. 424 (1–2): 131–142. doi:10.1016/j.tca.2004.05.018. ISSN 0040-6031.
9. Meessen, Jozef H. (2012). "Urea". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a27_333.pub2.
10. Aldrich, Sigma. "Urea Solution Product Information" (PDF). Retrieved 7 February 2023.
11. Burgess, Richard R.; Deutscher, Murray P. (2009). Guide to protein purification. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 819. ISBN 978-0-12-374536-1. OCLC 463300660.
12. Deutscher, M.P. (1990). Guide to Protein Purification. Methods in enzymology. Academic Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-12-182083-1. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
13. Sun S, Zhou JY, Yang W, Zhang H (February 2014). "Inhibition of protein carbamylation in urea solution using ammonium-containing buffers". Analytical Biochemistry. 446: 76–81. doi:10.1016/j.ab.2013.10.024. PMC 4072244. PMID 24161613.
14. Baumgartner M, Flöck M, Winter P, Luf W, Baumgartner W (2005). "Evaluation of flow injection analysis for determination of urea in sheep's and cow's milk" (PDF). Acta Veterinaria Hungarica. 50 (3): 263–71. doi:10.1556/AVet.50.2002.3.2. PMID 12237967. S2CID 42485569.
15. Greenan NS, Mulvaney RL, Sims GK (1995). "A microscale method for colorimetric determination of urea in soil extracts". Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 26 (15–16): 2519–2529. doi:10.1080/00103629509369465.
16. Duo et al., (1992). Can. J. Chem. Eng, 70, 1014–1020.
17. Durand, Erwann; Lecomte, Jérôme; Baréa, Bruno; Piombo, Georges; Dubreucq, Éric; Villeneuve, Pierre (1 December 2012). "Evaluation of deep eutectic solvents as new media for Candida antarctica B lipase catalyzed reactions". Process Biochemistry. Elsevier. 47 (12): 2081–2089. doi:10.1016/j.procbio.2012.07.027. ISSN 1359-5113..
18. Carow, Colleen (14 November 2008). "Researchers develop urea fuel cell". Ohio University (Press release). Archived from the original on 29 June 2017. Retrieved 6 January 2022.
19. Hama H, Kurokawa H, Kawano H, Ando R, Shimogori T, Noda H, Fukami K, Sakaue-Sawano A, Miyawaki A (August 2011). "Scale: a chemical approach for fluorescence imaging and reconstruction of transparent mouse brain". Nature Neuroscience. 14 (11): 1481–8.
doi:10.1038/nn.2928. PMID 21878933. S2CID 28281721.
20. "UriSec 40 How it Works". Odan Laboratories. January 2009. Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
21. "UriSec 40% Cream". Odan Laboratories. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
22. Habif, Thomas P. (25 November 2009). Clinical Dermatology E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-08037-8.
23. "Carbamide Peroxide Drops GENERIC NAME(S): CARBAMIDE PEROXIDE". WebMD. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
24. Crawford JH, McIntosh JF (1925). "The use of urea as a diuretic in advanced heart failure". Archives of Internal Medicine. New York. 36 (4): 530–541. doi:10.1001/archinte.1925.00120160088004.
25. Decaux G, Andres C, Gankam Kengne F, Soupart A (14 October 2010). "Treatment of euvolemic hyponatremia in the intensive care unit by urea" (PDF). Critical Care. 14 (5): R184. doi:10.1186/cc9292. PMC 3219290. PMID 20946646. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
26. Diggory PL (January 1971). "Induction of therapeutic abortion by intra-amniotic injection of urea". British Medical Journal. 1 (5739): 28–9.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.5739.28. PMC 1794772. PMID 5539139.
27. Traynor J, Mactier R, Geddes CC, Fox JG (October 2006). "How to measure renal function in clinical practice". BMJ. 333 (7571): 733–7.
doi:10.1136/bmj.38975.390370.7c. PMC 1592388. PMID 17023465.
28. Werk Michael; Albrecht Thomas; Meyer Dirk-Roelfs; Ahmed Mohammed Nabil; Behne Andrea; Dietz Ulrich; Eschenbach Götz; Hartmann Holger; Lange Christian (1 December 2012). "Paclitaxel-Coated Balloons Reduce Restenosis After Femoro-Popliteal Angioplasty". Circulation: Cardiovascular Interventions. 5 (6): 831–840.
doi:10.1161/CIRCINTERVENTIONS.112.971630. PMID 23192918.
29. Wöhrle, Jochen (1 October 2012). "Drug-Coated Balloons for Coronary and Peripheral Interventional Procedures". Current Cardiology Reports. 14 (5): 635–641. doi:10.1007/s11886-012-0290-x. PMID 22825918. S2CID 8879713.
30. Kolachalama, Vijaya B.; Shazly, Tarek; Vipul C. Chitalia; Lyle, Chimera; Azar, Dara A.; Chang, Gary H. (2 May 2019). "Intrinsic coating morphology modulates acute drug transfer in drug-coated balloon therapy". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 6839. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.6839C. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-43095-9. PMC 6497887. PMID 31048704.
31. Heavy Duty Truck Systems. Cengage Learning. 2015. p. 1117. ISBN 9781305073623.
32. Chlorides—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition. ScholarlyEditions. 2013. p. 77. ISBN 9781481674331.
33. "Lacura Multi Intensive Serum – Review – Excellent value for money – Lacura Multi Intensive Serum "Aqua complete"". Dooyoo.co.uk. 19 June 2009. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
34. Knollenberg, Robert G. (March 1966). "Urea as an Ice Nucleant for Supercooled Clouds". American Meteorological Society. 23 (2): 197. Bibcode:1966JAtS...23..197K. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1966)023<0197:UAAINF>2.0.CO;2.
35. Burch, Paula E. (13 November 1999). "Dyeing FAQ: What is urea for, in dyeing? Is it necessary?". All About Hand Dyeing. Retrieved 24 August 2020.
36. "Optical parametric oscillator using urea crystal". Google Patents.
37. Donaldson, William R.; Tang, C. L. (1984). "Urea optical parametric oscillator". Applied Physics Letters. AIP Publishing. 44 (1): 25–27. Bibcode:1984ApPhL..44...25D. doi:10.1063/1.94590.
38. Sakami W, Harrington H (1963). "Amino acid metabolism". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 32 (1): 355–98. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.32.070163.002035. PMID 14144484.
39. "Urea". Imperial College London. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
40. Walter F. Boron (2005). Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approach. Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 1-4160-2328-3. Page 837
41. Klein J, Blount MA, Sands JM (2011). "Urea Transport in the Kidney". Comprehensive Physiology. Comprehensive Physiology. Vol. 1. pp. 699–729.
doi:10.1002/cphy.c100030. ISBN 9780470650714. PMID 23737200.
42. Section 1.9.2 (page 76) in: Jacki Bishop; Thomas, Briony (2007). Manual of Dietetic Practice. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-3525-2.
43. PubChem. "urea cycle". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
44. Schliemann, S.; Elsner, Peter (1 January 2007). Skin Protection: Practical Applications in the Occupational Setting. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. ISBN 978-3-8055-8218-6.
45. Coombs A (27 October 2008). "Urea pollution turns tides toxic". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2008.1190. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
46. International Chemical Safety Cards: UREA. cdc.gov
2. Yalkowsky, Samuel H.; He, Yan; Jain, Parijat (19 April 2016). Handbook of Aqueous Solubility Data. ISBN 9781439802465.
3. "Solubility of Various Compounds in Glycerine" (PDF). msdssearch.dow.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
4. Loeser E, DelaCruz M, Madappalli V (9 June 2011). "Solubility of Urea in Acetonitrile–Water Mixtures and Liquid–Liquid Phase Separation of Urea-Saturated Acetonitrile–Water Mixtures". Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 56 (6): 2909–2913. doi:10.1021/je200122b.
5. Calculated from 14−pKa. The value of pKa is given as 0.10 by the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 49th edition (1968–1969). A value of 0.18 is given by Williams, R. (24 October 2001). "pKa Data" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2003.
6. "Urea - Registration Dossier - ECHA". echa.europa.eu.
7. Worsch, Detlev; Vögtle, Fritz (2002). "Separation of enantiomers by clathrate formation". Topics in Current Chemistry. Springer-Verlag. pp. 21–41. doi:10.1007/bfb0003835. ISBN 3-540-17307-2.
8. Schaber, Peter M.; Colson, James; Higgins, Steven; Thielen, Daniel; Anspach, Bill; Brauer, Jonathan (2004). "Thermal decomposition (pyrolysis) of urea in an open reaction vessel". Thermochimica Acta. 424 (1–2): 131–142. doi:10.1016/j.tca.2004.05.018. ISSN 0040-6031.
9. Meessen, Jozef H. (2012). "Urea". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a27_333.pub2.
10. Aldrich, Sigma. "Urea Solution Product Information" (PDF). Retrieved 7 February 2023.
11. Burgess, Richard R.; Deutscher, Murray P. (2009). Guide to protein purification. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 819. ISBN 978-0-12-374536-1. OCLC 463300660.
12. Deutscher, M.P. (1990). Guide to Protein Purification. Methods in enzymology. Academic Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-12-182083-1. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
13. Sun S, Zhou JY, Yang W, Zhang H (February 2014). "Inhibition of protein carbamylation in urea solution using ammonium-containing buffers". Analytical Biochemistry. 446: 76–81. doi:10.1016/j.ab.2013.10.024. PMC 4072244. PMID 24161613.
14. Baumgartner M, Flöck M, Winter P, Luf W, Baumgartner W (2005). "Evaluation of flow injection analysis for determination of urea in sheep's and cow's milk" (PDF). Acta Veterinaria Hungarica. 50 (3): 263–71. doi:10.1556/AVet.50.2002.3.2. PMID 12237967. S2CID 42485569.
15. Greenan NS, Mulvaney RL, Sims GK (1995). "A microscale method for colorimetric determination of urea in soil extracts". Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 26 (15–16): 2519–2529. doi:10.1080/00103629509369465.
16. Duo et al., (1992). Can. J. Chem. Eng, 70, 1014–1020.
17. Durand, Erwann; Lecomte, Jérôme; Baréa, Bruno; Piombo, Georges; Dubreucq, Éric; Villeneuve, Pierre (1 December 2012). "Evaluation of deep eutectic solvents as new media for Candida antarctica B lipase catalyzed reactions". Process Biochemistry. Elsevier. 47 (12): 2081–2089. doi:10.1016/j.procbio.2012.07.027. ISSN 1359-5113..
18. Carow, Colleen (14 November 2008). "Researchers develop urea fuel cell". Ohio University (Press release). Archived from the original on 29 June 2017. Retrieved 6 January 2022.
19. Hama H, Kurokawa H, Kawano H, Ando R, Shimogori T, Noda H, Fukami K, Sakaue-Sawano A, Miyawaki A (August 2011). "Scale: a chemical approach for fluorescence imaging and reconstruction of transparent mouse brain". Nature Neuroscience. 14 (11): 1481–8.
doi:10.1038/nn.2928. PMID 21878933. S2CID 28281721.
20. "UriSec 40 How it Works". Odan Laboratories. January 2009. Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
21. "UriSec 40% Cream". Odan Laboratories. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
22. Habif, Thomas P. (25 November 2009). Clinical Dermatology E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-08037-8.
23. "Carbamide Peroxide Drops GENERIC NAME(S): CARBAMIDE PEROXIDE". WebMD. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
24. Crawford JH, McIntosh JF (1925). "The use of urea as a diuretic in advanced heart failure". Archives of Internal Medicine. New York. 36 (4): 530–541. doi:10.1001/archinte.1925.00120160088004.
25. Decaux G, Andres C, Gankam Kengne F, Soupart A (14 October 2010). "Treatment of euvolemic hyponatremia in the intensive care unit by urea" (PDF). Critical Care. 14 (5): R184. doi:10.1186/cc9292. PMC 3219290. PMID 20946646. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
26. Diggory PL (January 1971). "Induction of therapeutic abortion by intra-amniotic injection of urea". British Medical Journal. 1 (5739): 28–9.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.5739.28. PMC 1794772. PMID 5539139.
27. Traynor J, Mactier R, Geddes CC, Fox JG (October 2006). "How to measure renal function in clinical practice". BMJ. 333 (7571): 733–7.
doi:10.1136/bmj.38975.390370.7c. PMC 1592388. PMID 17023465.
28. Werk Michael; Albrecht Thomas; Meyer Dirk-Roelfs; Ahmed Mohammed Nabil; Behne Andrea; Dietz Ulrich; Eschenbach Götz; Hartmann Holger; Lange Christian (1 December 2012). "Paclitaxel-Coated Balloons Reduce Restenosis After Femoro-Popliteal Angioplasty". Circulation: Cardiovascular Interventions. 5 (6): 831–840.
doi:10.1161/CIRCINTERVENTIONS.112.971630. PMID 23192918.
29. Wöhrle, Jochen (1 October 2012). "Drug-Coated Balloons for Coronary and Peripheral Interventional Procedures". Current Cardiology Reports. 14 (5): 635–641. doi:10.1007/s11886-012-0290-x. PMID 22825918. S2CID 8879713.
30. Kolachalama, Vijaya B.; Shazly, Tarek; Vipul C. Chitalia; Lyle, Chimera; Azar, Dara A.; Chang, Gary H. (2 May 2019). "Intrinsic coating morphology modulates acute drug transfer in drug-coated balloon therapy". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 6839. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.6839C. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-43095-9. PMC 6497887. PMID 31048704.
31. Heavy Duty Truck Systems. Cengage Learning. 2015. p. 1117. ISBN 9781305073623.
32. Chlorides—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition. ScholarlyEditions. 2013. p. 77. ISBN 9781481674331.
33. "Lacura Multi Intensive Serum – Review – Excellent value for money – Lacura Multi Intensive Serum "Aqua complete"". Dooyoo.co.uk. 19 June 2009. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
34. Knollenberg, Robert G. (March 1966). "Urea as an Ice Nucleant for Supercooled Clouds". American Meteorological Society. 23 (2): 197. Bibcode:1966JAtS...23..197K. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1966)023<0197:UAAINF>2.0.CO;2.
35. Burch, Paula E. (13 November 1999). "Dyeing FAQ: What is urea for, in dyeing? Is it necessary?". All About Hand Dyeing. Retrieved 24 August 2020.
36. "Optical parametric oscillator using urea crystal". Google Patents.
37. Donaldson, William R.; Tang, C. L. (1984). "Urea optical parametric oscillator". Applied Physics Letters. AIP Publishing. 44 (1): 25–27. Bibcode:1984ApPhL..44...25D. doi:10.1063/1.94590.
38. Sakami W, Harrington H (1963). "Amino acid metabolism". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 32 (1): 355–98. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.32.070163.002035. PMID 14144484.
39. "Urea". Imperial College London. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
40. Walter F. Boron (2005). Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approach. Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 1-4160-2328-3. Page 837
41. Klein J, Blount MA, Sands JM (2011). "Urea Transport in the Kidney". Comprehensive Physiology. Comprehensive Physiology. Vol. 1. pp. 699–729.
doi:10.1002/cphy.c100030. ISBN 9780470650714. PMID 23737200.
42. Section 1.9.2 (page 76) in: Jacki Bishop; Thomas, Briony (2007). Manual of Dietetic Practice. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-3525-2.
43. PubChem. "urea cycle". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
44. Schliemann, S.; Elsner, Peter (1 January 2007). Skin Protection: Practical Applications in the Occupational Setting. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. ISBN 978-3-8055-8218-6.
45. Coombs A (27 October 2008). "Urea pollution turns tides toxic". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2008.1190. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
46. International Chemical Safety Cards: UREA. cdc.gov
Published
2023-05-03
How to Cite
Tyagi, R., Kalani, R., & Pareek, C. (2023). Urea Cycle, Properties and Applications of Urea. Central Asian Journal of Theoretical and Applied Science, 4(5), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/RQCSU
Section
Articles
