HAZARDOUS CONTAMINANTS ASSOCIATED WITH PLASTIC AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Abstract
Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects and particles (e.g. plastic bottles, bags and microbeads) in the Earth's environment that adversely affects humans, wildlife and their habitat.[1][2] Plastics that act as pollutants are categorized by size into micro-, meso-, or macro debris.[3] Plastics are inexpensive and durable, making them very adaptable for different uses; as a result, manufacturers choose to use plastic over other materials.[4] However, the chemical structure of most plastics renders them resistant to many natural processes of degradation and as a result they are slow to degrade.[5] Together, these two factors allow large volumes of plastic to enter the environment as mismanaged waste and for it to persist in the ecosystem.
Plastic pollution can afflict land, waterways and oceans. It is estimated that 1.1 to 8.8 million tonnes of plastic waste enters the ocean from coastal communities each year.[6] It is estimated that there is a stock of 86 million tons of plastic marine debris in the worldwide ocean as of the end of 2013, with an assumption that 1.4% of global plastics produced from 1950 to 2013 has entered the ocean and has accumulated there.[7] Some researchers suggest that by 2050 there could be more plastic than fish in the oceans by weight.[8] Living organisms, particularly marine animals, can be harmed either by mechanical effects such as entanglement in plastic objects, problems related to ingestion of plastic waste, or through exposure to chemicals within plastics that interfere with their physiology. Degraded plastic waste can directly affect humans through both direct consumption (i.e. in tap water), indirect consumption (by eating animals), and disruption of various hormonal mechanisms.
Downloads
References
"Plastic pollution". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
Laura Parker (June 2018). "We Depend on Plastic. Now We're Drowning in It". NationalGeographic.com. Retrieved 25 June 2018.
Hammer, J; Kraak, MH; Parsons, JR (2012). "Plastics in the marine environment: the dark side of a modern gift". Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 220: 1–44. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3414-6_1. ISBN 978-1461434139. PMID 22610295. S2CID 5842747.
Hester, Ronald E.; Harrison, R. M. (editors) (2011). Marine Pollution and Human Health. Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 84–85. ISBN 184973240X
Le Guern, Claire (March 2018). "When The Mermaids Cry: The Great Plastic Tide". Coastal Care. Archived from the original on 5 April 2018. Retrieved 10 November 2018.
Jambeck, Jenna R.; Geyer, Roland; Wilcox, Chris; Siegler, Theodore R.; Perryman, Miriam; Andrady, Anthony; Narayan, Ramani; Law, Kara Lavender (13 February 2015). "Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean". Science. 347 (6223): 768–771. Bibcode:2015Sci...347..768J. doi:10.1126/science.1260352. PMID 25678662. S2CID 206562155.
Jang, Y. C., Lee, J., Hong, S., Choi, H. W., Shim, W. J., & Hong, S. Y. 2015. "Estimating the global inflow and stock of plastic marine debris using material flow analysis: a preliminary approach". Journal of the Korean Society for Marine Environment and Energy, 18(4), 263–273.[1]
Sutter, John D. (12 December 2016). "How to stop the sixth mass extinction". CNN. Retrieved 18 September 2017.
"Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2020. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
"The known unknowns of plastic pollution". The Economist. 3 March 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
Nomadic, Global (29 February 2016). "Turning rubbish into money – environmental innovation leads the way".
Mathieu-Denoncourt, Justine; Wallace, Sarah J.; de Solla, Shane R.; Langlois, Valerie S. (November 2014). "Plasticizer endocrine disruption: Highlighting developmental and reproductive effects in mammals and non-mammalian aquatic species". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 219: 74–88. doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2014.11.003. PMID 25448254.
Walker, Tony R.; Xanthos, Dirk (2018). "A call for Canada to move toward zero plastic waste by reducing and recycling single-use plastics". Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 133: 99–100. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.02.014. S2CID 117378637.
"Picking up litter: Pointless exercise or powerful tool in the battle to beat plastic pollution?". unenvironment.org. 18 May 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
Laville, Sandra (9 December 2020). "Human-made materials now outweigh Earth's entire biomass – study". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 December 2020.
National Geographic, 30 Oct. 2020, "U.S. Generates More Plastic Trash than Any Other Nation, Report Finds: The Plastic Pollution Crisis Has Been Widely Blamed on a Handful of Asian Countries, But New Research Shows Just How Much the U.S. Contributes"
UN Environment Programme, 12 May 2019 "Governments Agree Landmark Decisions to Protect People and Planet from Hazardous Chemicals and Waste, Including Plastic Waste"
The Guardian, 10 May 2019, "Nearly All Countries Agree to Stem Flow of Plastic Waste into Poor Nations: US Reportedly Opposed Deal, which Follows Concerns that Villages in Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia Had ‘Turned into Dumpsites’"
Phys.org, 10 May 2019 "180 Nations Agree UN Deal to Regulate Export of Plastic Waste"
"Historic day in the campaign to beat plastic pollution: Nations commit to develop a legally binding agreement". UN Environment Programme (UNEP). 2 March 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
Shams, Mehnaz; Alam, Iftaykhairul; Mahbub, Md Shahriar (October 2020). "Plastic pollution during COVID-19: Plastic waste directives and its long-term impact on the environment". Environmental Advances. 5: 100119. doi:10.1016/j.envadv.2020.100119. ISSN 2666-7657. PMC 8464355. PMID 34604829.
Ana, Silva (2020). "Increased Plastic Pollution Due to Covid-19 Pandemic: Challenges and Recommendations". Chemical Engineering Journal. 405: 126683. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2020.126683. PMC 7430241. PMID 32834764.
Limb, Lottie (22 September 2020). "The Great Bubble Barrier: How bubbles are keeping plastic out of the sea". euronews.com. Euronews.green. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
"Plastics industry adapts to business during COVID-19". Plastics News. 13 March 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
"Plastic in the time of a pandemic: protector or polluter?". World Economic Forum. 6 May 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Monella, Lillo Montalto (12 May 2020). "Will plastic pollution get worse after the COVID-19 pandemic?". euronews. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Westervelt, Amy (14 January 2020). "Big Oil Bets Big on Plastic". Drilled News. Archived from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Weisman A (2007). The world without us. New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1443400084.
Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Law KL (July 2017). "Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made". Science Advances. 3 (7): e1700782. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E0782G. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1700782. PMC 5517107. PMID 28776036.
Environment, U.N. (21 October 2020). "Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics". UNEP – UN Environment Programme. Retrieved 21 March 2019.
Clive Cookson 2019.
Walker, T.R.; Reid, K.; Arnould, J.P.Y.; Croxall, J.P. (1997). "Marine debris surveys at Bird Island, South Georgia 1990–1995". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 34 (1): 61–65. Bibcode:1997MarPB..34...61W. doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(96)00053-7.
Barnes, D. K. A.; Galgani, F.; Thompson, R. C.; Barlaz, M. (14 June 2009). "Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 364 (1526): 1985–1998. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0205. PMC 2873009. PMID 19528051.
Pettipas, Shauna; Bernier, Meagan; Walker, Tony R. (2016). "A Canadian policy framework to mitigate plastic marine pollution". Marine Policy. 68: 117–122. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2016.02.025.
Driedger, Alexander G.J.; Dürr, Hans H.; Mitchell, Kristen; Van Cappellen, Philippe (March 2015). "Plastic debris in the Laurentian Great Lakes: A review" (PDF). Journal of Great Lakes Research. 41 (1): 9–19. Bibcode:2015JGLR...41....9D. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2014.12.020.
Hannah Leung (21 April 2018). "Five Asian Countries Dump More Plastic into Oceans Than Anyone Else Combined: How You Can Help". Forbes. Retrieved 23 June 2019. China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam are dumping more plastic into oceans than the rest of the world combined, according to a 2017 report by Ocean Conservancy
Knight 2012, p. 11.
Knight 2012, p. 13.
Knight 2012, p. 12.
"Small, Smaller, Microscopic!". Retrieved 30 November 2017.
Otaga, Y. (2009). "International Pellet Watch: Global monitoring of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in coastal waters. 1. Initial phase data on PCBs, DDTs, and HCHs" (PDF). Marine Pollution Bulletin. 58 (10): 1437–1446. Bibcode:2009MarPB..58.1437O. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.06.014. PMID 19635625.
May, Tiffany (7 October 2020). "Hidden Beneath the Ocean's Surface, Nearly 16 Million Tons of Microplastic". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
"14 million tonnes of microplastics on sea floor: Australian study". phys.org. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
Barrett, Justine; Chase, Zanna; Zhang, Jing; Holl, Mark M. Banaszak; Willis, Kathryn; Williams, Alan; Hardesty, Britta D.; Wilcox, Chris (2020). "Microplastic Pollution in Deep-Sea Sediments From the Great Australian Bight". Frontiers in Marine Science. 7. doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.576170. ISSN 2296-7745. S2CID 222125532. Available under CC BY 4.0.
Chemical Society, American. "Plastics in Oceans Decompose, Release Hazardous Chemicals, Surprising New Study Says". Science Daily. Science Daily. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
Chalabi, Mona (9 November 2019). "Coca-Cola is world's biggest plastics polluter – again". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
"Global Brand Audit Report 2019". Break Free From Plastic. 18 October 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
Priestland, Emma (5 November 2020). "Quick to commit but slow to change, Corporations are making little progress upscaling towards a circular economy for plastics". Break Free From Plastic. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
"Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, Nestlé Are Worst Plastic Polluters of 2020, Have Made 'Zero Progress,' New Report Finds". EcoWatch. 11 December 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
"The Macroproblem of Microplastics". Ohio River Valley Institute. 3 August 2020. China, the world's biggest consumer of single-use plastics.
"Coca-Cola Shares Sustainability Progress". The Coca-Cola Company. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
McVeigh, Karen (7 December 2020). "Coca-Cola, Pepsi and Nestlé named top plastic polluters for third year in a row". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
The Guardian, 1 Dec. 2020 "‘Deluge of Plastic Waste’: US Is World’s Biggest Plastic Polluter; At 42m Metric Tons of Plastic Waste a Year, The US Generates More Waste than All EU Countries Combined"
2020 Consensus Study Report of the Committee of Experts of the United States National Academies of Engineering, Sciences and Medicine "Reckoning with the U.S. Role in Global Ocean Plastic Waste"
Statista, Ian Tiseo, 14 Apr. 2020 "Per capita plastic waste generation in select countries worldwide in 2016(in kilograms a year)"
Science, 30 Oct. 2020 "The United States’ Contribution of Plastic Waste to Land and Ocean"
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2019). "Summary". Reckoning with the U.S. Role in Global Ocean Plastic Waste. Washington: The National Academies Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-309-45885-6. Retrieved 20 June 2019. An estimated 8 million metric tons (MMT) of plastic waste enter the world's ocean each year
Meijer, Lourens J. J.; Van Emmerik, Tim; Van Der Ent, Ruud; Schmidt, Christian; Lebreton, Laurent (2020). "More than 1000 rivers account for 80% of global riverine plastic emissions into the ocean". Science Advances. 7 (18). Bibcode:2020SciA....7.5803M. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz5803. PMC 8087412. PMID 33931460.
"Top 20 Countries Ranked by Mass of Mismanaged Plastic Waste". Earth Day.org. 4 June 2018.
Kushboo Sheth (18 September 2019). "Countries Putting The Most Plastic Waste Into The Oceans". worldatlas.com.
Hannah Ritchie (11 October 2019). "Ocean plastics: How much do rich countries contribute by shipping their waste overseas?". Our World in Data. Retrieved 12 October 2019. Most of the plastic that enters the oceans from land comes from rivers in Asia. More than 80% of it [...] a few percent – possibly up to 5% – of the world's ocean plastics could come from rich countries exporting their waste overseas
Law, Kara Lavender; Starr, Natalie; Siegler, Theodore R.; Jambeck, Jenna R.; Mallos, Nicholas J.; Leonard, George H. (2020). "The United States' contribution of plastic waste to land and ocean". Science Advances. 6 (44). Bibcode:2020SciA....6..288L. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abd0288. PMC 7608798. PMID 33127684.
EcoWatch, 18 Mar. 2020 "U.S. Continues to Ship Illegal Plastic Waste to Developing Countries"
Lebreton, Laurent; Andrady, Anthony (2019). "Future scenarios of global plastic waste generation and disposal". Palgrave Communications. Nature. 5 (1). doi:10.1057/s41599-018-0212-7. ISSN 2055-1045. Lebreton2019. the Asian continent was in 2015 the leading generating region of plastic waste with 82 Mt, followed by Europe (31 Mt) and Northern America (29 Mt). Latin America (including the Caribbean) and Africa each produced 19 Mt of plastic waste while Oceania generated about 0.9 Mt.
"Plastic Oceans". futureagenda.org. London.
Cheryl Santa Maria (8 November 2017). "STUDY: 95% of plastic in the sea comes from 10 rivers". The Weather Network.
Duncan Hooper; Rafael Cereceda (20 April 2018). "What plastic objects cause the most waste in the sea?". Euronews.
Christian Schmidt; Tobias Krauth; Stephan Wagner (11 October 2017). "Export of Plastic Debris by Rivers into the Sea" (PDF). Environmental Science & Technology. 51 (21): 12246–12253. Bibcode:2017EnST...5112246S. doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b02368. PMID 29019247. The 10 top-ranked rivers transport 88–95% of the global load into the sea
Harald Franzen (30 November 2017). "Almost all plastic in the ocean comes from just 10 rivers". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 18 December 2018. It turns out that about 90 percent of all the plastic that reaches the world's oceans gets flushed through just 10 rivers: The Yangtze, the Indus, Yellow River, Hai River, the Nile, the Ganges, Pearl River, Amur River, the Niger, and the Mekong (in that order).
Daphne Ewing-Chow (20 September 2019). "Caribbean Islands Are The Biggest Plastic Polluters Per Capita In The World". Forbes.
Hardesty, Britta Denise (2017). "Plastic Pollution Challenges in Marine and Coastal Environments: From Local to Global Governance". Restoration Ecology. 25: 123–128. doi:10.1111/rec.12388. S2CID 55423492.
"Safe planetary boundary for pollutants, including plastics, exceeded, say researchers". Stockholm Resilience Centre. 18 January 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
De Matteis, Alessandro; Turkmen Ceylan, Fethiye Burcu; Daoud, Mona; Kahuthu, Anne (2019). "A systemic approach to tackling ocean plastic debris". Environment Systems and Decisions. 42 (1): 136–145. doi:10.1007/s10669-021-09832-0. ISSN 2194-5403. S2CID 238208588.
Thushari, G. G. N.; Senevirathna, J. D. M. (1 August 2020). "Plastic pollution in the marine environment". Heliyon. 6 (8): e04709. Bibcode:2020Heliy...604709T. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04709. ISSN 2405-8440. PMC 7475234. PMID 32923712.
"Sweeping New Report on Global Environmental Impact of Plastics Reveals Severe Damage to Climate". Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL). Retrieved 16 May 2019.
Plastic & Climate: The Hidden Costs of a Plastic Planet (PDF). May 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
"An underestimated threat: Land-based pollution with microplastics". sciencedaily.com. 5 February 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
"Plastic planet: How tiny plastic particles are polluting our soil". unenvironment.org. 3 April 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
"Mismanaged plastic waste". Our World in Data. 2010. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
McCarthy, Niall. "The Countries Polluting The Oceans The Most". statista.com. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
Carrington, Damian (7 December 2020). "'Disastrous' plastic use in farming threatens food safety – UN". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Aggarwal,Poonam; (et al.) Interactive Environmental Education Book VIII. Pitambar Publishing. p. 86. ISBN 8120913736
"Development solutions: Building a better ocean". European Investment Bank. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
Honingh, Dorien; van Emmerik, Tim; Uijttewaal, Wim; Kardhana, Hadi; Hoes, Olivier; van de Giesen, Nick (2020). "Urban River Water Level Increase Through Plastic Waste Accumulation at a Rack Structure". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00028. ISSN 2296-6463.
hermesauto (6 September 2016). "Plastic bags clogging Bangkok's sewers complicate efforts to fight floods". The Straits Times. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
"Invisibles". orbmedia.org. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
"Synthetic Polymer Contamination in Global Drinking Water". orbmedia.org. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
"Your tap water may contain plastic, researchers warn (Update)". Retrieved 15 September 2017.
editor, Damian Carrington Environment (5 September 2017). "Plastic fibres found in tap water around the world, study reveals". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 15 September 2017. {{cite news}}: |last= has generic name (help)
Lui, Kevin. "Plastic Fibers Are Found in '83% of the World's Tap Water'". Time. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
Li, P., Wang, X., Su, M., Zou, X., Duan, L., & Zhang, H. (2020). Characteristics of plastic pollution in the environment: A Review. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 107(4), 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-020-02820-1
Mbachu, O., Jenkins, G., Kaparaju, P., & Pratt, C. (2020). The rise of artificial soil carbon inputs: Reviewing microplastic pollution effects in the soil environment. Science of the Total Environment, 780, 146569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.146569
Chae, Y., & An, Y.-J. (2018). Current research trends on plastic pollution and ecological impacts on the soil ecosystem: A Review. Environmental Pollution, 240, 387–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.05.008
Wei, F., Xu, C., Chen, C., Wang, Y., Lan, Y., Long, L., Xu, M., Wu, J., Shen, F., Zhang, Y., Xiao, Y., & Yang, G. (2019). Distribution of microplastics in the sludge of wastewater treatment plants in Chengdu, China. Chemosphere, 287, 132357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.132357
Yang, J., Li, L., Li, R., Xu, L., Shen, Y., Li, S., Tu, C., Wu, L., Christie, P., & Luo, Y. (2020). Microplastics in an agricultural soil following repeated application of three types of sewage sludge: A field study. Environmental Pollution, 289, 117943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.117943
Weisman, Alan (2007). The World Without Us. St. Martin's Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 978-0312347291.
"Marine plastic pollution". IUCN. November 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2018.
"Nanoplastics in snow: The extensive impact of plastic pollution". Open Access Government. 26 January 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2019.
Jang, Y. C.; Lee, J.; Hong, S.; Choi, H. W.; Shim, W. J.; Hong, S. Y. (2015). "Estimating the global inflow and stock of plastic marine debris using material flow analysis: a preliminary approach". Journal of the Korean Society for Marine Environment and Energy. 18 (4): 263–273. doi:10.7846/JKOSMEE.2015.18.4.263.
"The average person eats thousands of plastic particles every year, study finds". Environment. 5 June 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
Microplastics and Micropollutants in Water: Contaminants of Emerging Concern (Report). European Investment Bank. 27 February 2018.
Yuan, Zhihao; Nag, Rajat; Cummins, Enda (1 June 2019). "Human health concerns regarding microplastics in the aquatic environment - From marine to food systems". Science of the Total Environment. 823: 153730. Bibcode:2019ScTEn.823o3730Y. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.153730. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 35143789. S2CID 246672629.
García Rellán, Adriana; Vázquez Ares, Diego; Vázquez Brea, Constantino; Francisco López, Ahinara; Bello Bugallo, Pastora M. (1 January 2018). "Sources, sinks and transformations of plastics in our oceans: Review, management strategies and modelling". Science of the Total Environment. 854: 158745. Bibcode:2018ScTEn.854o8745G. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.158745. hdl:10347/29404. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 36108857. S2CID 252251921.
"Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics". UNEP – UN Environment Programme. 21 October 2020. Retrieved 21 March 2019.
Wright, Pam (6 June 2017). "UN Ocean Conference: Plastics Dumped In Oceans Could Outweigh Fish by 2050, Secretary-General Says". The Weather Channel. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
"Marine Plastic Pollution". IUCN. 17 November 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
"Plastic in Our Oceans Is Killing Marine Mammals". WWF. 1 July 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
Blettler, Martín C.M.; Abrial, Elie; Khan, Farhan R.; Sivri, Nuket; Espinola, Luis A. (2018). "Freshwater plastic pollution: Recognizing research biases and identifying knowledge gaps". Water Research. 143: 416–424. Bibcode:2018WatRe.143..416B. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2018.06.015. PMID 29986250. S2CID 51617474.
Azevedo-Santos, Valter M.; Brito, Marcelo F. G.; Manoel, Pedro S.; Perroca, Júlia F.; Rodrigues-Filho, Jorge Luiz; Paschoal, Lucas R. P.; Gonçalves, Geslaine R. L.; Wolf, Milena R.; Blettler, Martín C. M.; Andrade, Marcelo C.; Nobile, André B. (2020). "Plastic pollution: A focus on freshwater biodiversity". Ambio. 50 (7): 1313–1324. doi:10.1007/s13280-020-01496-5. ISSN 0044-7447. PMC 8116388. PMID 33543362.
Winton, Debbie J.; Anderson, Lucy G.; Rocliffe, Stephen; Loiselle, Steven (2020). "Macroplastic pollution in freshwater environments: Focusing public and policy action". Science of the Total Environment. 704: 135242. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.704m5242W. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135242. PMID 31812404. S2CID 208955699.
Schmidt, Christian; Krauth, Tobias; Wagner, Stephan (7 November 2017). "Export of Plastic Debris by Rivers into the Sea". Environmental Science & Technology. 51 (21): 12246–12253. Bibcode:2017EnST...5112246S. doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b02368. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 29019247.
Lebreton, Laurent C. M.; van der Zwet, Joost; Damsteeg, Jan-Willem; Slat, Boyan; Andrady, Anthony; Reisser, Julia (2017). "River plastic emissions to the world's oceans". Nature Communications. 8 (1): 15611. Bibcode:2017NatCo...815611L. doi:10.1038/ncomms15611. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 5467230. PMID 28589961.
Wu, Yanmei; Guo, Peiyong; Zhang, Xiaoyan; Zhang, Yuxuan; Xie, Shuting; Deng, Jun (2019). "Effect of microplastics exposure on the photosynthesis system of freshwater algae". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 374: 219–227. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.04.039. PMID 31005054. S2CID 125204296.
Kalčíková, Gabriela; Žgajnar Gotvajn, Andreja; Kladnik, Aleš; Jemec, Anita (2017). "Impact of polyethylene microbeads on the floating freshwater plant duckweed Lemna minor". Environmental Pollution. 230: 1108–1115. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.050. PMID 28783918.
Spirkovski, Z.; Ilik-Boeva, D.; Ritterbusch, D.; Peveling, R.; Pietrock, M. (2019). "Ghost net removal in ancient Lake Ohrid: A pilot study". Fisheries Research. 211: 46–50. doi:10.1016/j.fishres.2018.10.023. ISSN 0165-7836. S2CID 92803175.
Cui, Rongxue; Kim, Shin Woong; An, Youn-Joo (21 September 2017). "Polystyrene nanoplastics inhibit reproduction and induce abnormal embryonic development in the freshwater crustacean Daphnia galeata". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 12095. Bibcode:2017NatSR...712095C. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-12299-2. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5608696. PMID 28935955.
Araújo, Amanda Pereira da Costa; Malafaia, Guilherme (2020). "Can short exposure to polyethylene microplastics change tadpoles' behavior? A study conducted with neotropical tadpole species belonging to order anura (Physalaemus cuvieri)". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 391: 122214. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122214. ISSN 0304-3894. PMID 32044637. S2CID 211079532.
Niemi, Gerald J.; McDonald, Michael E. (15 December 2004). "Application of Ecological Indicators". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 35 (1): 89–111. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130132. ISSN 1543-592X.
Jin, Yuanxiang; Xia, Jizhou; Pan, Zihong; Yang, Jiajing; Wang, Wenchao; Fu, Zhengwei (2018). "Polystyrene microplastics induce microbiota dysbiosis and inflammation in the gut of adult zebrafish". Environmental Pollution. 235: 322–329. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.088. ISSN 0269-7491. PMID 29304465.
Rastelli, Marialetizia; Cani, Patrice D; Knauf, Claude (13 May 2019). "The Gut Microbiome Influences Host Endocrine Functions". Endocrine Reviews. 40 (5): 1271–1284. doi:10.1210/er.2018-00280. ISSN 0163-769X. PMID 31081896. S2CID 153306607.
Kannan, Kurunthachalam; Vimalkumar, Krishnamoorthi (18 August 2020). "A Review of Human Exposure to Microplastics and Insights Into Microplastics as Obesogens". Frontiers in Endocrinology. 12: 724989. doi:10.3389/fendo.2020.724989. ISSN 1664-2392. PMC 8416353. PMID 34484127.
D'Angelo, Stefania; Meccariello, Rosaria (1 March 2020). "Microplastics: A Threat for Male Fertility". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (5): 2392. doi:10.3390/ijerph18052392. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 7967748. PMID 33804513.
"Report: Plastic Threatens Human Health at a Global Scale". Plastic Pollution Coalition. 20 February 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
"Ocean Plastics Pollution". Center for Biological Diversity. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
Carrington, Damian (24 March 2019). "Microplastics found in human blood for first time". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
North, Emily J.; Halden, Rolf U. (1 January 2013). "Plastics and environmental health: the road ahead". Reviews on Environmental Health. 28 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1515/reveh-2012-0030. PMC 3791860. PMID 23337043.
"New disease caused by plastics discovered in seabirds". The Guardian. 3 March 2018. Retrieved 4 March 2018.
"New disease caused solely by plastics discovered in seabirds". Natural History Museum. 3 March 2018. Retrieved 4 March 2018.
"Is global plastic pollution nearing an irreversible tipping point?". phys.org. Retrieved 13 August 2020.
MacLeod, Matthew; Arp, Hans Peter H.; Tekman, Mine B.; Jahnke, Annika (2 July 2020). "The global threat from plastic pollution". Science. 373 (6550): 61–65. Bibcode:2020Sci...373...61M. doi:10.1126/science.abg5433. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 34210878. S2CID 235699724.
Malkin, Bonnie (8 July 2009). "Australian town bans bottled water". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 12 January 2019. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
"Pledging for a plastic-free dining culture | Daily FT". www.ft.lk. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
Staff, Waste360 (16 January 2019). "New Global Alliance to End Plastic Waste Has Launched". Waste360. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
"Inside Big Plastic's Faltering $1.5 Billion Global Cleanup Effort". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
"Alliance to End Plastic Waste: Barely Credible" (PDF). planet-tracker.org/. August 2019.
"'It's a pipe dream': Green groups blast plastic makers' recycling push". www.msn.com.
"End plastic pollution: Towards an international legally binding instrument*" (PDF). United Nations Environmental Programm. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
Thompson, R. C.; Moore, C. J.; vom Saal, F. S.; Swan, S. H. (14 June 2009). "Plastics, the environment and human health: current consensus and future trends". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 364 (1526): 2153–2166. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0053. PMC 2873021. PMID 19528062.
Selke, Susan; Auras, Rafael; Nguyen, Tuan Anh; Castro Aguirre, Edgar; Cheruvathur, Rijosh; Liu, Yan (2015). "Evaluation of Biodegradation-Promoting Additives for Plastics". Environmental Science & Technology. 49 (6): 3769–3777. Bibcode:2015EnST...49.3769S. doi:10.1021/es504258u. PMID 25723056.
"Plastic alternatives may worsen marine pollution, MPs warn". The Guardian. 12 September 2019. Retrieved 12 September 2019.
Copyright (c) 2021 Central Asian Journal of Theoretical and Applied Science
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
